THE BATTLE OF KARBALA
The Battle of Karbala took place on Muharram 10, in the year 61 of the Islamic calendar[2] (October 10, 680)[5][6] in Karbala, in present day Iraq. On one side were supporters and relatives of Muhammad's grandson Hussein ibn Ali, on the other side was a military detachment from the forces of Yazid I, the Umayyad caliph.
The Battle of Karbala is commemorated during an annual 10-day period held every Muharram by the Shi'ah as well as many Sunnis, culminating on its tenth day, Ashura.[7]
Political background
The rule of the third Caliph Uthman concluded with a violent uprising. This uprising ended with the assassination of Uthman and for many days rebels seized and occupied the city of Medina. Under the overwhelming pressure of the Ummah, Ali ibn Abu Talib was elected as the fourth Caliph with massive numbers of people swearing their allegiance to him. His immediate steps were to ensure the unity of Muslims. He issued the orders of not attacking the rebels until order was restored. The governor of Syria, Muawiya, refused allegiance to Ali and revolted against him. This resulted in armed confrontations between the Islamic Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib and Muawiya. Practically, the Muslim world became divided. At the death of Ali ibn Abu Talib, his elder son Hasan ibn Ali succeeded him but soon signed a treaty with Muawiya to avoid further bloodshed[8]. Muawiya remained the ruler of Syria. Prior to his death, Muawiya was actively plotting a major deviation from Islamic norms[9]. He was establishing his son Yazid as the next ruler hence establishing dynastic rule for the first time in Islam. This was a move which was considered unacceptable by some leaders of the ummah including the younger son of Ali ibn Abu Talib, Hussain ibn Ali[9][10].
The majority of Muslims were observing the conduct of the leaders of prominent companion families, namely, Abdullah Ibn Abbas, Abdullah Ibn Zubair, Abdullah Ibn Omar, Hussain Ibn Ali and Abdur Rehman Ibn Abu Bakr. In his written instructions to Yazid, Muawiya suggested specific strategies for each one of them. Muawiya warned Yazid specifically about Hussain ibn Ali, since he was the only blood relative of the prophet Muhammad [11]. Yazid was successful in coercing Abdullah ibn Abbas, Abdullah Ibn Omar and Abdur Rehman Ibn Abu Bakr. Abdullah Ibn Zubair took refuge in Makkah. Hussain ibn Ali believed the appointment of Yazid as the heir of the Caliphate would lead to hereditary kingship, which was against the original political teachings of Islam. Therefore, he resolved to confront Yazid.[12]
Events Before the Battle
Muawiya I died on Rajab 22, 60 AH (680 CE). Following Arabic traditions, Muawiya I appointed his son Yazid as his successor, converting the Caliphate into a dynasty. Few notables of the Islamic community were crucial to lending some legitimacy to this conversion of Caliphate into a dynasty[13][14], even people like Said ibn Uthman (the third Caliph)[13] and Al Ahnaf ibn Qays[15] denounced his Caliphate[16]. Hussain was by the most significant threat to this dynastic rule, since he was the only living grandson of the prophet Muhammad. Yazid instructed his Governor Walid in Medina to force Hussain to pledge allegiance to Yazid. Hussain refused it and uttered his famous words that "Anyone akin to me will never accept anyone akin to Yazid as a ruler." Hussain departed Medina on Rajab 28, 60 AH (680 CE), two days after Walid's attempt to force him to submit to Yazid's rule. He stayed in Mecca from the beginnings of the Sha'ban and all of Ramadan, Shawwal, as well as Dhu al-Qi'dah.
It is mainly during his stay in Mecca that he received many letters from Kufa assuring him their support and asking him to come over there and guide them. He answered their calls and sent Muslim ibn Aqeel, his cousin, to Kufa as his representative in an attempt to consider the exact situation and public opinion.
Hussain's representative to Kufa, Muslim ibn Aqeel was welcomed by the people of Kufa, and most of them swore allegiance to him. After this initial observation, Muslim ibn Aqeel wrote to Hussain Ibn Ali that the situation in Kufa was favorable. However, after the arrival of the new Governor of Kufa, Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad, the scenario changed. Muslim ibn Aqeel and his host, Hani ibn Urwa, were executed on Dhu al-Hijjah 9, 60AH (September 10, 680 CE) without any considerable resistance of the people. This shifted the loyalties of the people of Kufa, in favor of Yazid against Husain ibn Ali[17]. Husain ibn Ali also realized a deep conspiracy that Yazid had appointed `Amr ibn Sa`ad ibn al As as the head of an army, ordering him to take charge of the pilgrimage caravans and to kill al Husain ibn Ali wherever he could find him during Hajj[18][19], and hence decided to leave Mecca on 08th Dhul Hijjah 60 Hijri corresponding with English calendar as 12 September 680 AD, just a day before Hajj and was contented with Umrah concerning about the sanctity of the Kaaba[20][21]. He delivered a famous sermon in Kaaba highlighting his reasons to leave that he didn't want the sanctity of Kaaba to be violated, since his opponents had crossed any norm of decency and were willing to violate all tenets of Islam.
When Hussain Bin Ali was making his mind to leave for Kufa, Abd-Allah ibn Abbas and Abdullah ibn Zubayr held a meeting with him and advised him not to move to Iraq, or, if he was determined to move, not to take women and children with him in this dangerous journey. Husain, however, had resolved to go ahead with his plan. He gave a speech to people the day before his departure and said:
"... The death is a certainty for mankind, just like the trace of necklace on the neck of young girls. And I am enamored of my ancestors like eagerness of Jacob to Joseph ... Everyone, who is going to devote his blood for our sake and is prepared to meet Allah, must depart with us..."[22]
On their way to Kufa, the small caravan received the sad news of execution of Muslim ibn Aqeel and the indifference of the people of Kufa[23][24][25]. Instead of turning back, Hussain decided to continue the journey and sent Qais ibn Musahhar al-Saydavi as messenger to talk to the nobles of Kufa. The messenger was captured in the vicinity of Kufa but managed to tear the letter to pieces to hide names of its recipients. Just like Muslim ibn Aqeel, Qais ibn Musahhar was executed.
The Events of Battle
Battle of Karbala, Iranian painting, oil on canvas, 19th century from the Tropenmuseum Amsterdam
Husayn and his followers were two days' journey away from Kufa when they were intercepted by the vanguard of Yazid's army; about 1000 men led by Hurr ibn Riahy. Upon interception by vanguards Husayn asked: "With us or against us?" They replied: "Of course against you, oh Aba Abd Allah!" Husain said: "If you are different from what I received from your letters and from your messengers then I will return to where I came from." Their leader, Hurr, refused Husain's request to let him return to Medina. The caravan of the Mohammad's family arrived at Karbala on Muharram 2, 61AH (October 2, 680 CE)[26]. They were forced to pitch a camp on dry, bare land and Hurr stationed his army nearby.
Ibn Ziyad appointed Umar ibn Sa'ad to command the battle against Husain ibn Ali. At first Umar ibn Sa'ad rejected the leadership of the army but he accepted after Ibn Ziyad threatened to depose him from the governorship of Ray city and also to get his position replaced by Shimr ibn Zil Jawshan.[27] Ibn Ziyad also urged Umar ibn Sa'ad to initiate the battle on the sixth day of Moharram[28]. Umar ibn Sa'ad moved towards the battlefield with a 30,000[2]-men army and arrived at Karbala on Muharram 2, 61 AH (October 3, 680 CE).
Ibn Ziyad sent a brief letter to Umar ibn Sa'd that commanded: "Prevent Husayn and his disciples from accessing water and do not allow them to drink a drop of water. Ibn Sa'ad ordered 5000 horsemen to cut Husain's camp off from the Euphrates to stop them from accessing water. One of the disciples of Husain ibn Ali met Umar ibn Sa'ad and negotiated to get access to water, which the latter denied. The water blockade continued up to the end of the battle on Muharram 10 night (October 10, 680 CE)[29].
Umar ibn Sa'ad received an order from ibn Ziyad to start the battle immediately and not to postpone it further. The army started stealthily advancing toward Husain's camp on the afternoon of 9th of Muharram. At this time Husain sent Abbas ibn Ali to ask ibn Sa'ad for another delay, until the next morning, so that he and his men could spend the night praying. Ibn Sa'ad agreed the respite[27][30][31].
On the night before the battle, Husain gathered his men and told them that they were all free to leave the camp in the middle of the night, under cover of darkness, rather than face certain death if they stayed with him. None of Husain's men wished to defect and remained with him. Husain and his followers held a vigil to pray all night[32].
Day of the battle
On Muharram 10 also called Ashura, Husayn ibn Ali offered his morning prayers with his companions. He appointed Zuhayr ibn Qayn to command the right flank, Habib ibn Muzahir to command the left flank and his half-brother Abbas ibn Ali as standard bearer of his army. There is controversy regarding gregorian date for the day of Ashura. October 10, is a calculated date through calculators[33][34]. But,these calculators are not always correct. According to book Maqtal al Hussain Muharram 9 is October 12, 680, so it appears that the date was October 12, 680 A.D.
The companions of Husayn ibn Ali were 32 horsemen and 40 infantrymen.[35] Husayn rode on his horse Zuljenah.
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Husain ibn Ali called the people around him to join him for the sake of Allah and to defend Muhammad's family. His speech affected Hurr ibn Yazid Al-Riyahi, the commander of the Tamim and Hamdan tribes who had stopped Husain from his journey. He abandoned Umar ibn Sa'ad and galloped his horse to Husain's small force[36].
On the other side, Yazid had sent Shimir (his chief commander) to replace Umar ibn Saad ibn Yazid as the commander. He reorganized his army and by afternoon, he had come to know that Hurr along with his son had defected to Hussain's army.[36][37][38]
The battle starts
Ibn Sa'ad advanced and fired an arrow at Husain's army, saying: "Give evidence before the governor that I was the first thrower." Then his army started showering Husain's army with weapons[39][40]. Hardly any men from Al Husayn ibn Ali's army escaped from being shot by an arrow[40][41]. Both sides began fighting. Successive assaults resulted in the death of a group of Husain's companions[40][42].
The first skirmish was between the right flank of Imam Husain's army with the left of the Syrian army. A couple of dozens men under the command of Zuhayr ibn Qain fought heroically and repulsed the initial infantry attack and in the process destroyed the left flank of the Syrian army which in disarray collided with the middle of the army. Seeing this, the Syrian army quickly retreated and broke the pre-war verbal agreement of not using arrows and lances. This agreement was made in view of the small number of Husain's companions. Umar ibn Sa'ad on advice of 'Amr ibn al Hajjaj ordered his army not to come out for any duel and to attack Husain's army together[43][44].
`Amr ibn al-Hajjaj attacked Husain's right wing, but the men were able to maintain their ground, kneeling down as they planted their lances. They were thus able to frighten the enemy's horses. When the horsemen came back to charge at them again, al-H. usain's men met them with their arrows, killing some of them and wounding others[44][45]. `Amr ibn al-Hajjaj kept saying the following to his men, "Fight those who abandoned their creed and who deserted the jam`a!" Hearing him say so, Husain said to him, "Woe unto you, O `Amr! Are you really instigating people to fight me?! Are we really the ones who abandoned their creed while you yourself uphold it?! As soon as our souls part from our bodies, you will find out who is most worthy of entering the fire![44][46]
In order to prevent random and indiscriminate showering of arrows on Husain's camp which had women and children in it, Husain's followers went out to single combats. Men like Burayr ibn Khudhayr[47], Muslim ibn Awsaja[43][48] and Habib ibn Mazahir[49][50] were slain in the fighting. They were attempting to save Husain's life by shielding him. Every casualty had a considerable effect on their military strength since they were vastly outnumbered by Yazid's army. Husain's companions were coming, one by one, to say goodbye to him, even in the midst of battle. Almost all of Husain's companions were killed by the onslaught of arrows or lances.
After almost all of Husain's companions were killed, his relatives asked his permission to fight. The men of Banu Hashim, the clan of Muhammad and Ali, went out one by one. Ali al Akbar ibn Husain, the middle son of Husayn, was the first one of Hashemite who received permission from his father.[49][51][52]
Casualties from Banu Hashim were sons of Ali ibn Abi Talib, sons of Hasan ibn Ali, son of Husain ibn Ali, son of Abd-Allah ibn Ja'far ibn Abi-Talib and Zaynab bint Ali, sons of Aqeel ibn Abi Talib, as well as a son of Muslim ibn Aqeel. There were seventy-two Hashemites dead in all (including Husayn ibn Ali)[53].
Death of Abbas ibn Ali
Hazrat Abbas ibn Ali advanced toward Euphrates branch along a dyke. Hazrat Abbas ibn Ali continued his advance into the heart of ibn Sa'ad's army.[54] He was under heavy shower of arrows but was able to penetrate them and get to the branch leaving heavy casualties from the enemy. He immediately started filling the water skin. In a remarkable and immortal gesture of loyalty to his brother and Muhammad's grandson he didn't drink any water despite being severely thirsty. He put the water skin on his right shoulder and started riding back toward their tents. Umar ibn Sa'ad ordered an outright assault on hazrat Abbas ibn Ali saying that if Abbas succeeds in taking water back to his camp, we won't be able to defeat them till the end of time. A massive enemy army blocked his way and surrounded him. He was ambushed from behind a bush and his right arm was cut off. Abbas put the water skin on his left shoulder and continued his way but his left arm was also cut off. Abbas now held the water skin with his teeth. The army of ibn Sa'ad started shooting arrows at him, one arrow hit the water skin and water poured out of it, now he turned his horse back towards the army and charge towards them but someone hit a gurz on his head and he fell off the horse. In his last moments when Hazrat Abbas ibn Ali was wiping the blood in his eyes to enable him to see Hussain's face, Abbas said not to take his body back to the camps because he had promised to bring back water but couldn't and so couldn't face Sukaina,the daughter of Hussain ibn Ali. Before the death of Hazrat Abbas Imam Hussein was noted to have said "Abbas your death is like the breaking of my back"
Death of Husayn ibn Ali
Husain ibn Ali told Yazid's army to offer him single battle, and they gave his request. He killed everybody that fought him in single battles.[55] He frequently forced his enemy into retreat, killing a great number of opponents. Husayn and earlier his son Hazrat Ali Akbar were the two warriors who penetrated and dispersed the core of Ibn-Saad's army (Qalb-e-Lashkar), a sign of extreme chaos in traditional warfare.
Imzm Husayn advanced very deep in the back ranks of the Syrian army. When the enemies stood between him and the tents he shouted:
"Woe betide you oh followers of Abu Sufyan's dynasty! If no religion has ever been accepted by you and you have not been fearing the resurrection day then be noble in your world ..."[56]
Then his enemies invaded back toward him.
They continuously attacked each other,[57] Until his numerous injuries caused him to stay a moment. At this time he was hit on his forehead with a stone. He was cleaning blood from his face while he was hit on the heart with arrow and he said: "In the name of Allah, and by Allah, and on the religion of the messenger of Allah." Then he raised his head up and said: "Oh my God! You know that they are killing a man that there is son of daughter of a prophet on the earth except him." He then grasped and pulled the arrow out of his chest, which caused heavy bleeding.[58]
He became very weak and stopped fighting. The soldiers approaching him gave up confrontation, seeing his position. One soldier, however, walked up to Imam Husayn and hit him on his head with his sword.
The enemies hesitated to fight Imam Husayn, but they decided to surround him. At this time Abd-Allah ibn Hassan, an underage boy, escaped from the tents and ran to Husayn. When a soldier intended to slay Husayn, Abd-Allah ibn Hassan defended his uncle with his arm, which was cut off. Imam Husayn hugged Abd-Allah, but the boy was already hit by an arrow.[59]
Imam Husayn got on his horse and tried to leave, but Yazid's army continued pursuit. According to Shia tradition, a voice came from skies stating: "We are satisfied with your deeds and sacrifices." Husayn then sheathed his sword and tried to get down from the horse but was tremendously injured and so the horse let him down. He then sat against a tree.[60]
Umar ibn Sa'ad ordered a man to dismount and to finish the job. Khowali ibn Yazid al-Asbahiy preceded the man but feared and did not do it. Then Shimr ibn Dhiljawshan dismounted his horse and cut Husayn's throat with his sword whilst Husayn was prostrating to Allah. Just before his throat was about to be cut, Imam Husayn asked Shimr ibn Dhiljawshan, "Have you done your prayers today?" and this shocked Shimr because he did not expect anyone in the position of Husayn to ask about such a question. Lanti Shimr ibn Dhiljawshan was saying: "I swear by God that I am raising your head while I know that you are grandson of the messenger of Allah and the best of the people by father and mother" when he raised head of Husayn ibn Ali on a spear.[61] The ibn Sa'ad's men looted all the valuables from Husayn's body.
Another ending of the battle is the following;
While Imam Hussain was taking rest against the tree, Lanti Shimr knew that Imam Hussain was unable to fight and sent one of his men to go and kill him. The man went and seeing Imam Hussains Eyes,he got extremely scared and ran back to his camp. When Shimr asked why he hadn't killed Imam Hussain, the man replied that looking into his eyes he saw prophet Muhammad. Angrily, Shimr sent another man. This one was so frightened that he droped his sword and ran back to his camp. This time when Lanti Shimr asked him why he hadn't killed him, he said he saw into his eyes and saw the angry look of Moula Ali.Lanati Shimr was angry, said that he would have to do it himself and wearing his iron boots, he went to where Imam Hussain was. Using his iron boots he kicked Imam Hussain in the ribs. Imam Hussain fell to the floor, when Shimr disrespected and sat on top of him. Using a blunt knife,he rugged 12 times against Imam Hussain's throat. Imam Hussain said "get up", your blunt knife wont work here, this is the area that was kissed by my mother's father Prophet Mohammad! Let me prostrate, and pray for the well being of my people". While his head was down in sujdo, Shimr removed his head from body.
The army of Ibn Sa'ad rushed to loot the tents. The daughters of Mohammad's family were expelled from the tents unveiled and barefooted, while weeping and crying for their slain relatives. The army set all the tents on fire. The women were asking: "By Allah, will you make us pass the site of the murder of Husayn?" And when they saw the martyrs and wailed.[62] Then Sakinah bint Husayn (Death, 117 AH) embraced her father's body until some people dragged her away.[63]
Umar ibn Sa'ad called volunteering horsemen to trample Imam Husayn's body. Ten horsemen trampled his body such that his chest and back were ground.
Traditionally, it is believed that Imam Husayn's body was martyred but his 'noor' (light) and Imamat were passed on to his son Ali who became Imam Ali Zainul Abideen (Sahifa-e-Sajjadiya is a collection of his supplications).
Aftermath
Umar ibn Sa'ad sent Husayn's head to ibn Ziyad on Ashura afternoon and ordered to sever heads of his comrades to send them to Kufa. The heads were distributed to various tribes enabling them to gain favor of ibn Ziyad. Ibn Sa'ad remained in Karbala until the next noon.[64]
After ibn Sa'ad's army went out of Karbala, some people from Banu Asad tribe came there and buried their dead.[65]
On Muharram 11 (October 11, 680 CE), all captives including all women and children were then loaded onto camels with neither saddle nor shade and were moved toward Kufa. As they approached Kufa, its people gathered to see them. Some women of Kufa gathered veils for them upon knowing that they are relatives of Muhammad. Among the captives were Hazrat Ali ibn Husayn, who was gravely ill, as well as Hazrat Hassan ibn Hassan al-Muthanna, who was seriously injured in the battle of Karbala.[66]
Bibi Zaynab bint Ali pointed at the people to be quiet. Then she addressed the people of Kufa:
"The praise is exclusively attributed to Allah. And greetings to my father (grand father), Muhammad, and to his pure and benevolent family. And then, Oh people of Kufa! Oh deceitful and reneger people! Do you weep? So let tears not be dried and let groans not be finished. ... Beware, such a bad preparation you have made for yourself that Allah became furious of you and you will be at punishment forever. Do you weep and cry? Yeah, by Allah, do weep numerously and do laugh less! Since you brought its shame and fault on yourself and you will not be able to cleanse it forever. ..."[67]
During the journey from Karbala to Kufa, and from Kufa to Damascus, Husayn's sister Bibi Zaynab bint Ali and Bibi Umm-Kulthoom bint Ali, and son Ali ibn Husayn gave various speeches that exposed the truth about Yazid and told the Muslim world of the various atrocities committed in Karbala. After being brought to Yazid's court, Zaynab courageously gave a famous speech in which she denounced Yazid's claim to the caliphate and eulogized Husayn's uprising.
The prisoners were held in Damascus for a year. During this year, some prisoners died of grief, most notably Sukayna bint Husayn. The people of Damascus began to frequent the prison, and Bibi Zaynab and Ali ibn Husayn used that as an opportunity to further propagate the message of Husayn and explain to the people the reason for Husayn's uprising. As public opinion against Yazid began to foment in Syria and parts of Iraq, Yazid ordered their release and return to Medina, where they continued to tell the world of Husayn's cause.
Historiography of the battle of Karbala
Primary sources
The first historian to systematically collect the reports of eyewithnesses of this event was Abi Mikhnaf(died in 157 AH, 774 CE) in a work titled "Ketab Maqtal Al-Husayn".[68] Abi Mikhnaf's original seems to have been lost and that which has reached today has been transmitted through his student Hisham Al-Kalbi (died in 204 AH.) There are four manuscripts of the Maqtal, located at Gotha (No. 1836), Berlin (Sprenger, Nos. 159-160), Leiden (No. 792), and St. Petersburg (Am No. 78) libraries.[69]
Rasul Jafarian has counted 5 Primary sources which are now available. Among the original works on maqàtil (pl. of maqtal or place of death / martyrdom and hence used for books narrating the incident of Karbalà) the ones that could be relied upon for reviewing the Karbala happenings are five in number. All these five maqtals belong to the period between the 2nd century AH (8th CE) and the early 4th century AH (10th CE). These five sources are the "Maqtal al-Husayn" of Abu Mikhnaf, the "Maqtal al-Husayn" of Ibn Sa'd-Sunni Historian-, the "Maqtal al-Husayn" of Baladhuri -Sunni Historian-, the "Maqtal al-Husayn" of Dinawari, and the "Maqtal al-Husayn" of Ibn A'tham.[70] However, some other historians have recognized some of these as secondary sources. For example Veccia Vaglieri has found that Baladhuri (died 279AH/892-893CE) like Tabari has used Abi Mikhnaf but hasn't mentioned his name.[71] On the basis of the article of "Abi Mikhnaf" in "Great Islamic Encyclopedia" Ibn A'tham has mentioned Abi Mikhnaf in "Al-Futuh" thus he should be recognized as secondary source.[72]
Secondary sources
Then latter Muslim historians have written their histories on the basis of the former ones especially Maqtal Al-Husayn of Abi Mikhnaf. However they have added some narrations through their own sources which weren't reported by former historians.
Tabari narrated this story on the basis of Abi Mikhnaf's report through Hisham Al-Kalbi in his history, History of the Prophets and Kings.[73] Also there is fabricated version of Abi Mekhnaf's book in Iran and Iraq.[68] Then other Sunni Muslim historians including Balazari and Ibn Kathir narrated the events of Karbala from Abi Mikhnaf. Also among Shi'a Shaykh al-Mufid used it in Irshad.[74] However, followers of Ali – later to be known as Shia Muslims – attached a much greater importance to the battle and have compiled many accounts known as Maqtal Al-Husayn.
Shia writings
Salwa Al-Amd has classified Shia writings in three groups:[75]
1. The legendary character of this category associates the chronological history of Al-Husayn with notions relating to the origin of life and the Universe, that have preoccupied the human mind since the beginning of creation, and in which Al-Husayn is eternally present. This category of writing holds that a person's stance toward Al-Husayn and Ahl al- Bayt is a criterion for reward and punishment in the afterlife. It also transforms the historical boundaries of Al-Husayn's birth in 4 Hr. and his martyrdom in 61 Hr. to an eternal presence embracing the boundaries of history and legend.
2. This category comprises the literary works common in rituals and lamentations (poetic and prose) and is characterized by its melodramatic style, which aims to arouse pity and passion for Ahl al- Bayt's misfortunes, and charge feelings during tempestuous political circumstances on the memory of Ashura.
3. This category is the nearest to Sunni writings because it fully cherishes the historical personality of Al-Husayn and regards the Karbala incident as a revolt against oppression; dismissing the legendary treatment, while using the language of revolt against tyranny and despotic sovereignty. A model writer of this category is Mohamed Mahdi Shams Al-Din.
History Distortion
As Jafarian says "The holding of mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn was very much in vogue in the eastern parts of Iran before the Safavids came to power. Kashefi wrote the "Rawzah al-Shuhada" for the predominantly Sunnis region of Herat and Khurasan at a time when the Safavid state was being established in western Iran and had no sway in the east." [76]
After the adoption of the Shi'a faith in Iran, many Iranian authors composed poems and plays commemorating the battle.[77] Most of these compositions are only loosely based upon the known history of the event.[76]
Some 20th century Shia scholars have protested the conversion of history into mythology. Prominent critics include:
* Murtaza Motahhari[78][79][80]
* Abbas Qomi, author of Nafas al-Mahmoum[81]
* Sayyid Abd-al-Razzaq Al-Muqarram, author of Maqtalul-Husayn[82]
Also several books have been written in Persian language about political backgrounds and aspects of the battle of Karbala.[83]
Impact on Literature
Mourning of Muharram
Events
* Battle of Karbala
Figures
* Imam Husayn
* Ali Akbar ibn Husayn
* Ali Asghar ibn Husayn
* al-Abbas ibn Ali
* Zaynab bint Ali
* Sukayna bint Husayn
* Muslim ibn Aqeel
Places
* Imam Husayn Shrine
* Hussainia
Times
* Day of Ashura
* Arba'een
Customs
* Majlis-e-Aza
* Marsia
* Noha
* Soaz
* Ta'zieh
* Tabuik
* Hosay
* Chup Tazia
The theme of suffering and martyrdom occupies a central role in the history of religion from the earliest time. Sacrifices are a means for reaching higher and loftier stages of life; to give away parts of one's fortune or to sacrifice members of one's family enhances one's religious standing. The Biblical and Qur'anic story of Abraham who so deeply trusted in God that he, without questioning, was willing to sacrifice his only son, points to the importance of such sacrifice.
Taking into account the importance of sacrifice and suffering for the development of man, Islamic literature has given a central place to the death on the battlefield of Muhammed's grandson Husayn. The development of the whole genre of marsiya and taziya poetry in the Persian and Indo-Persian world, or in the popular Turkish tradition is in this way.
Persian Literature
The name of Husayn appears several times in the work of the first great Sufi Persian/Dari poet, Sanai Ghaznawi. Here, the name of the martyred hero can be found now and then in connection with bravery and selflessness, and Sanai sees him as the prototype of the Shaheed (martyr), higher and more important than all the other martyrs who are and have been in the world.[84]
The tendency to see Husayn as the model of martyrdom and bravery continues in the poetry written in the Divan of Attar.
When Shiism became the official religion of Iran in the fifteenth century, Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp, patronized poets who wrote about the tragedy of Karbala, and the genre of marsiya, according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids."[85]
The most well-known fifteenth-century Persian marsiya writer was Muhtasham Kashani,[86] whose works consequently became a source of elegy emulation for Iranians.
Azari and Turkish Literature
Turkish tradition, especially in the later Bektashi order, is deeply indebted to Shi'i Islam. But it seems that already in some of the earliest popular Sufi songs in Turkey, those composed by Yunus Emre in the late 13th or early 14th century, Muhammed's grandsons played a special role.[87]
South Asian-Muslim literature
Sindhi literature
As in many other fields of Sindhi poetry, Shah Abdul-Latif of Bhit (1689–1752) is the first to express ideas which were later taken up by other poets. He devoted "Sur Kedaro" in his Sindhi Shah Jo Risalo to the martyrdom of the grandson of Muhammed, and saw the event of Karbala as embedded in the whole mystical tradition of Islam.
A number of poets among the Shia of Sindh composed elegies on Karbala. The most famous of them is Thabit 'Ali Shah (1740–1810), whose specialty was the genre of "suwari". This genre, as well as the more common forms, persists in Sindhi throughout the whole of the 18th and 19th centuries, and even into our own times (Sachal Sarmast, Bedil Rohriwaro, Mir Hassan, Shah Naser, Mirza Baddhal Beg, Mirza Qalich Beg, to mention only a few, some of whom were Sunni Sufis).[84]
Urdu literature
The most famous corpus of Urdu poetry on Karbala was produced by two poets of Lucknow named Mir Babar Ali Anees and Mirza Salamat Ali Dabeer. Both these poets lived in the 19th century and they were the contemporaries of the Delhi based poet Mirza Ghalib. The genre of poetry that those two poets produced is known as Marsiya. Recently, professor David Matthews of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, has translated a full length (197 stanzas of six lines each) Marsiya of Anis into English verse. This was published in book form by Rupa and Co., New Delhi, India.
The legacy of Urdu Marsiya has lasted to this day and many poets are still writing that kind of poetry. Both Josh Malihabadi and Allama Muhammad Iqbal followed the genre of six-line stanza and have produced great poetry.
But there was also another way to understand the role of Husayn in the history of the Islamic people, and importantly, the way was shown by Muhammad Iqbal, who was certainly a Sunni poet and philosopher.
The Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi dynasties of South India (Deccan), predominantly Twelver Shi'is in religious persuasion, patronized Dakhni (an early South Indian dialect of Urdu) marasi. Although Persian marasi of Muhtasham Kashani were still recited, the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi rulers felt the need to render the Karbala tragedy in the language of common Muslims. In the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi kingdom of Deccan, marasi flourished, especially under the patronage of Ali Adil Shah and Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, marsiya writers themselves, and poets such as Ashraf Biyabani. Urdu marasi written during this period are still popular in South Indian villages.[88]
Mirza Ghalib described the "King of Martyrs", Imam Husayn, by using metaphors, similar to the ones he used in his odes. Ghalib used regal imagery to underscore the virtues of Imam Husayn. The marasi of Mir Taqi Mir and Mirza Rafi Sauda are similar to those of Ghalib in that they perform their panegyric function for the martyrs of Karbala; but these poets also wrote marasi in which the narration of the Karbala tragedy was saturated with cultural and ceremonial imagery of North India.[88]
Josh Malihabadi renowned as "Shair-i inqilab", or the Poet of revolution, used the medium of marsiya as a means to propagate the view that Karbala is not a pathos-laden event of a bygone era, but a prototype for contemporary revolutionary struggles. Josh's writings during the late 1930s and the early 1940s, when nationalist feelings were running high in South Asia, had a momentous impact upon his generation. Josh attempted to galvanize the youth of his day by intertwining their contemporary struggle of liberation from colonization with Husayn's battle: "O Josh, call out to the Prince of Karbala [Hussain], cast a glance at this twentieth century, look at this tumult, chaos, and the earthquake. At this moment there are numerous Yazids, and yesterday there was only one. From village to village might has assumed the role of truth, Once again, Human feet are in chains"[88]
Vahid Akhtar, formerly Professor and Chairman, Dept. of Philosophy at Aligarh Muslim University,[89] has been crucial in keeping the tradition of marsiya dynamic in present-day South Asia. His marasi rely on the images, metaphors, and nuances inherited from nineteenth century masters, and on the values invested in this genre by socio-religious reformers like Josh. On the back cover of his recently published marsiya anthology, for example, is the famous Arabic saying: "Every place is Karbala; every day is Ashura." By positing a similarity between Husayn's historic battle and the present day struggle of human kind against renewed forms of Yazidian oppression, Akhtar deflects the interpretation of the martyrs of Karbala as mere insignia of Islamic history; they are instead posed as the sinews for the revival of an ideal Islamic state of being.[90]
Shia observances
Shia Muslims commemorate the Battle of Karbala every year in the Islamic month of Muharram. The mourning begins on the first day of the Islamic Calendar and then reaches its climax on Muharram 10, the day of the battle, known as Ashurah. It is a day of Majlises, public processions, and great grief. Men and women chant and weep, mourning Husayn, his family, and his followers. Speeches emphasize the importance of the values the sacrifices Husayn made for Islam. Shia mourners in Iran flagellate themselves with chains or whips, usually causing bleeding. Most Shias show grievances, however, through weeping and beating their chests with their hands in a process called matam. Forty days after Ashurah, Shias mourn the death of Husayn in a commemoration called Arba'een.
In South Asia, the Battle of Karbala has inspired a number of literary and non-musical genres, such as the marsiya, noha, and soaz.
Bredband
